托福阅读背景知识知多少
【简介】感谢网友“珠然”参与投稿，下面小编给大家整理了托福阅读背景知识知多少（共5篇），供大家阅读参考。
篇1：托福阅读背景知识知多少
托福阅读背景知识知多少 阅读背景知识汇总
一.考古学(archaeology)题材
1.文化(cultural )考古学
形态(physical)考古学(多见)
2.化石(fossil )
化石构成。化石比原物更沉重(矿物质环境)
化石形成原因。坚硬物质，迅速掩埋。
化石与动物的进化关系。
3.人的左右手
使用工具。证据：敲击的划痕;手柄的形状。
牙齿上的划痕。
大脑左右半球的大小差别;趾骨的粗细差别。
作画时人像的方向
4.古代陶瓷的考古。
Clay，model，wheel (转盘)，glaze，kiln
5.古代文字的考古。
二.印第安题材
1.白令海峡移民理论
2.印第安文化
3.印第安宗教观
4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize，squash，bean，pea。
三.动植物题材(必考)
1.植物学题材(不多见)
地衣、苔、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
树冠上方生物。
植物在生态平衡中的作用。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)
考普通动物为多。最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
考动物进化(evolution)。
考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum)—门class—纲order—目family—科genus—属species—种carnivore/predator—食肉动物herbivore—食草动物omnivore—杂食动物
动物的生活习性最为多见。
群居(social animal)动物的习性
蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(caste)：交流方式—信息素—气味;生活来源;外来物种的有害性。
蜜蜂：群居个性;“8”字舞;蜜蜂智能;防御;天敌—大黄蜂。
大猩猩：智能：猩际关系
迁徙(migration )
野鸭、大雁：日照长短;辨别方向。
伪装(camouflage)、花拟态(mimicry )
四.美国历史题材
1.美国发展线索
发现美洲阶段
哥伦布(意)，为黄金、茶叶、香料
West/East Indian
影响：世界观变化;国家形势变化;(爱尔兰——土豆饥荒)
英国定居阶段(English settlement )
1607第一个定居点Captain John Smith影响清教徒
1620五月花号
殖民时期(colonial era )
独立战争(American Revolution )
新的国家(new nation)：南北不均衡
南北战争(Civil War )
战后重建。持续近1。
西进运动(Westward movement )
工业化大增长
world war I &; II
2.“大熔炉”：地理位置;民族融合1960’s;文化融合。
3.邮政。小马快递;铁路邮政。
五.地理学题材
1.地理现象、土壤构成、降雪降雨。
2.冰川(glacier)、形成(foundation) à移动冰川(surge glacier )à危险
3.地球构成：地心构成
4.板块构成学说
托福阅读有哪些高频词
托福阅读高频词汇有很多，我们把它分类整理，以便于简单记忆：
一、生物类：
迁徙动物migrate
群居动物 social animal
独居动物 solitary solitude One Hundred Years of Solitude
独特性 peculiarity
动物的分类：门 phylum，纲class，目order，科family，属genus，种species
rodent 啮齿类 reptile 爬行动物 amphibian 两栖动物 mammal 哺乳动物
cell—tissue—organ—system
herbivore 食草动物, carnivore 食肉动物, omnivore 杂食动物
predator—prey
adapt to/adjust to
mimicry拟态 camouflage伪装
二、天文学：
天体 astronomical body 宇宙 cosmos, universe
恒星 star 行星 planet 卫星 satellite 小行星 asteroid 彗星 comet 陨石 meteorite
太阳系 solar system
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
分子 molecule 原子 atom 质子 proton 中子 neutron电子 electron
离子 ion 粒子 particle
三、地质学：
地球构成 crust 地壳 mantle 地幔 core 地核
板块构造学说 plate tectonics 大陆漂移学说 continental drift
四、美国历史：
历史太短(美国历史不够，印第安人来凑)
1、殖民时期历史
① Discovery 意大利人哥伦布 Far East寻找香料
② English settlement 16，英国人在弗吉尼亚州建立了第一个殖民地
16 May Flower Puritan到达麻省普利茅斯
③ Colonial Era殖民阶段 colony colonist=settler
④ 独立战争 the War of Independence=American Revolution 1776
2、建国之后历史
① The establish of a new nation
② Civil War 1861-1865 Lincoln Stowe Uncle Tom’s Cabin
③ Western Movement/Western Expansion
④ Industrial growth
五、文学艺术：
1、文学 literature
美国作家 Whitman “Leaves of Grass” Emily Dickinson
流派 naturalism Sister Carrie
Realism Mark Twain
2、美术 Fine Art
只擅长water color 水彩画
3、音乐 Music pop music musical
4、手工艺 pottery
托福阅读长难句的翻译训练
1. Wearing a seat belt saves lives; it reduces your chance of death or serious injury by more than half.
2. But it will be the driver’s responsibility to make sure that children under 14 do not ride in the front unless they are wearing a seat belt of some kind.
3. However, you do not have to wear a seat belt if you are reversing your vehicle; or you are making a local delivery or collection using a special vehicle; or if you have a valid medical certificate which excuses you from wearing it.
4. Remember you may be taken to court for not doing so, and you may be fined if you cannot prove to the court that you have been excused from wearing it.
5. Professor Taiju Matsuzawa wanted to find out why otherwise healthy farmers in northern Japan appeared to be losing their ability to think and reason at a relatively early age, and how the process of ageing could he slowed down.
6. With a team of colleagues at Tokyo National University, he set about measuring brain volumes of a thousand people of different ages and varying occupations.
7. Computer technology enabled the researchers to obtain precise measurements of the volume of the front and side sections of the brain, which relate to intellect (智能) and emotion, and determine the human character.
8. Contraction of front and side parts as cells die off was observed in some subjects in their thirties, but it was still not evident in some sixty and seventy-year-olds.
9. The findings show in general terms that contraction of the brain begins sooner in people in the country than in the towns.
10. White collar workers doing routine work in government offices are, however, as likely to have shrinking brains as the farm worker, bus driver and shop assistant.
1、系好安全带能够挽救性命，它能将丧生和重伤的概率减少一半以上。
2、但是司机有责任确保14岁以下的孩子不要坐在前排，除非他们系好了安全带。
3、当然，如果有以下情况你可以不系安全带：你在倒车时，或者你用一种特殊交通工具进行当地的货物运送、收集时，或者你有合法的医学证明你不能系安全带时。
4、注意你如果不这么做(系安全带)的话，你有可能被告上法庭，而且你有可能被处以罚款除非你能证明你有不带安全带的理由。
5、Taiju Matsuzawa 教授想找出为什么日本北部的健康农民在相对年轻的年龄就显得开始失去思考与推理的能力的原因以及怎样才能延缓老化过程。
6、在东京国立大学的同事们的帮助下，他开始对一千来自不同职业的人群进行了大脑体积的测量。
7、计算机技术帮助研究人员获得人脑前部和侧部的准确体积，这是与人的智能和情绪有关的部分，而且也决定人的性格特点。
8、有的人(大脑)前部和侧部的收缩——随着细胞的死亡——在三十多岁时就能被观察到了，但是也有些人直到六七岁依然不明显。
9、研究结果表明在农村的人大脑收缩基本上比城市里的人要早。
10、在政府部门从事简单重复工作的白领也像农场工人、公共汽车司机和商店职员一样大脑细胞容易收缩。
篇2：托福阅读背景知识
托福阅读背景知识知多少 阅读背景知识汇总
一.考古学(archaeology)题材
1.文化(cultural )考古学
形态(physical)考古学(多见)
2.化石(fossil )
化石构成。化石比原物更沉重(矿物质环境)
化石形成原因。坚硬物质，迅速掩埋。
化石与动物的进化关系。
3.人的左右手
使用工具。证据：敲击的划痕;手柄的形状。
牙齿上的划痕。
大脑左右半球的大小差别;趾骨的粗细差别。
作画时人像的方向
4.古代陶瓷的考古。
Clay，model，wheel (转盘)，glaze，kiln
5.古代文字的考古。
二.印第安题材
1.白令海峡移民理论
2.印第安文化
3.印第安宗教观
4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize，squash，bean，pea。
三.动植物题材(必考)
1.植物学题材(不多见)
地衣、苔、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
树冠上方生物。
植物在生态平衡中的作用。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)
考普通动物为多。最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
考动物进化(evolution)。
考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum)—门class—纲order—目family—科genus—属species—种carnivore/predator—食肉动物herbivore—食草动物omnivore—杂食动物
动物的生活习性最为多见。
群居(social animal)动物的习性
蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(caste)：交流方式—信息素—气味;生活来源;外来物种的有害性。
蜜蜂：群居个性;“8”字舞;蜜蜂智能;防御;天敌—大黄蜂。
大猩猩：智能：猩际关系
迁徙(migration )
野鸭、大雁：日照长短;辨别方向。
伪装(camouflage)、花拟态(mimicry )
四.美国历史题材
1.美国发展线索
发现美洲阶段
哥伦布(意)，为黄金、茶叶、香料
West/East Indian
影响：世界观变化;国家形势变化;(爱尔兰——土豆饥荒)
英国定居阶段(English settlement )
1607第一个定居点Captain John Smith影响清教徒
1620五月花号
殖民时期(colonial era )
独立战争(American Revolution )
新的国家(new nation)：南北不均衡
南北战争(Civil War )
战后重建。持续近100年。
西进运动(Westward movement )
工业化大增长
world war I &; II
2.“大熔炉”：地理位置;民族融合1960’s;文化融合。
3.邮政。小马快递;铁路邮政。
五.地理学题材
1.地理现象、土壤构成、降雪降雨。
2.冰川(glacier)、形成(foundation) à移动冰川(surge glacier )à危险
3.地球构成：地心构成
4.板块构成学说
托福阅读真题原题+题目
Tulips are Old World, rather than New World, plants, with the origins of the species lying in Central Asia. They became an integral part of the gardens of the Ottoman Empire from the sixteenth century onward, and, soon after, part of European life as well. Holland, in particular, became famous for its cultivation of the flower.
A tenuous line marked the advance of the tulip to the New World, where it was unknown in the wild. The first Dutch colonies in North America had been established in New Netherlands by the Dutch West India Company in 1624, and one individual who settled in New Amsterdam (today's Manhattan section of New York City) in 1642 described the flowers that bravely colonized the settlers' gardens. They were the same flowers seen in Dutch still-life paintings of the time: crown imperials, roses, carnations, and of course tulips. They flourished in Pennsylvania too, where in 1698 William Penn received a report of John Tateham's Great and Stately Palace, its garden full of tulips. By 1760, Boston newspapers were advertising 50 different kinds of mixed tulip roots. But the length of the journey between Europe and North America created many difficulties. Thomas Hancock, an English settler, wrote thanking his plant supplier for a gift of some tulip bulbs from England, but his letter the following year grumbled that they were all dead.
Tulips arrived in Holland, Michigan, with a later wave of early nineteenth-century Dutch immigrants who quickly colonized the plains of Michigan. Together with many other Dutch settlements, such as the one at Pella, Iowa, they established a regular demand for European plants. The demand was bravely met by a new kind of tulip entrepreneur, the traveling salesperson. One Dutchman, Hendrick van der Schoot, spent six months in 1849 traveling through the United States taking orders for tulip bulbs. While tulip bulbs were traveling from Europe to the United States to satisfy the nostalgic longings of homesick English and Dutch settlers, North American plants were traveling in the opposite direction. In England, the enthusiasm for American plants was one reason why tulips dropped out of fashion in the gardens of the rich and famous.
1. Which of the following questions does the passage mainly answer?
(A) What is the difference between an Old World and a New World plant?
(B) Why are tulips grown in many different parts of the world?
(C) How did tulips become popular in North America?
(D) Where were the first Dutch colonies in North America located?
2. The word integral in line 2 is closest in meaning to
(A) interesting
(B) fundamental
(C) ornamental
(D) overlooked
3. The passage mentions that tulips were first found in which of the following regions?
(A) Central Asia
(B) Western Europe
(C) India
(D) North America
4. The word flourished in line 11 is closest in meaning to
(A) were discovered
(B) were marketed
(C) combined
(D) thrived
5. The author mentions tulip growing in New Netherlands, Pennsylvania. and Michigan in order to
illustrate how
(A) imported tulips were considered more valuable than locally grown tulips
(B) tulips were commonly passed as gifts from one family to another
(C) tulips grew progressively more popular in North America
(D) attitudes toward tulips varied from one location to another
6. The word grumbled in line 16 is closest in meaning to
(A) denied
(B) warned
(C) complained
(D) explained
7. The passage mentions that one reason English and Dutch settlers planted tulips in their
gardens was that tulips
(A) were easy to grow
(B) had become readily available
(C) made them appear fashionable
(D) reminded them of home
8. The word they in line 20 refers to
(A) tulips
(B) plains
(C) immigrants
(D) plants
9. According to the passage , which of the following changes occurred in English gardens during
the European settlement of North America?
(A) They grew in size in order to provide enough plants to export to the New World.
(B) They contained a wider variety of tulips than ever before.
(C) They contained many new types of North American plants.
(D) They decreased in size on the estates of wealthy people.
10. The passage mentions which of the following as a problem associated with the importation of
tulips into North America?
(A) They were no longer fashionable by the time they arrived.
(B) They often failed to survive the journey.
(C) Orders often took six months or longer to fill.
(D) Settlers knew little about how to cultivate them.
PASSAGE 85 CBADC CDCCB
篇3：新托福阅读背景知识
新托福阅读背景知识：19世纪后半叶经济迅速发展
南北战争后，由于南部种植园制度的废除，为资本主义在全国范围的发展创造了条件;造船业和机器制造业迅速发展，横贯大陆的4条铁路建成，西部广大土地的垦殖，边疆的消失，促进了国内统一市场的形成和扩大。在中西部、远西部和南部日益开拓进程中，各地区发展了具有本地特点的工业。外国移民的大量涌入，提供了丰富的劳动力，使北美能够大规模进行农业生产。19世纪后半叶农业机械化迅速发展。从1860-19，耕地面积由4.07亿英亩增加到8.79亿英亩，改良的土地面积扩大了3倍多，小麦和玉米的产量约增加了3倍多。农业中大生产排挤和兼并小生产，在以工业为主的北部，农业日益采用集约耕作，在其他地区，大农场数字逐渐增加，19美国农产品总数的一半是由1/6的大农户生产的，形成了美国式农业资本主义发展道路。
19世纪后半叶，科学技术领域有重要发明和突破，其中首推电力的应用;1876年A.G：贝尔发明电话机，1886年T.A.爱迪生制造了电灯，1892年杜里雅兄弟试制成功汽车，19莱特兄弟试制飞机航行成功。电力广泛应用于工业，导致美国经济的全面发展。1880年工业在全国生产总值中的比重已超过农业，工业生产总值由1860年的世界第4位，跃居至1894年的首位。美国成为高度发达的资本主义国家。
第一次世界大战前的内外政策(1889—1914)
1889年美国召开泛美会议，18美西战争爆发，美国击败了西班牙，夺取了加勒比海的古巴和波多黎各、太平洋的关岛及菲律宾群岛，接着合并了夏威夷群岛。1903年美国夺取了巴拿马运河区。在远东，18美国提出对华“门户开放”政策。美国在1904-19日俄战争中支持日本。在日俄战争结束后，美日双方经过谈判，于19签订了罗脱—高平协定。在19总统选举中，民主党总统候选人T.W.威尔逊上台。威尔逊以“新自由”作为号召进行改革，降低关税，建立联邦储备银行制度，通过克莱顿反托拉斯法(1914)，征收累进所得税。该时期美国在对外政策上，对西半球墨西哥、尼加拉瓜等国进行了武装干涉。
第一次世界大战至20世纪代末的美国
第一次世界大战开始后，美国宣布中立，向交战双方提供军火，不久又对协约国进行贷款。1916年，威尔逊当选连任。19，美国在德国潜艇击沉美国船只后，于4月6日对德宣战。大战期间由于国外移民中断，黑人大量北移，并人伍出国作战，开拓了视野。1911月，威尔逊签署对德停战协定。第一次世界大战促进了美国的经济繁荣。战后，美国由欠60亿美元的债务国而成为贷出100亿美元的债权国，美国成为最富有的国家。19共和党W.G.哈定执政，正值美国陷入全面经济萧条。他提出“工业正常化”和”抢救资本主义”政策;1923-1929年世界资本主义进人相对稳定时期。美国国内由于固定资本更新，建筑业兴起，汽车和钢铁工业等扩大以及商品和资本输出激增，1923年美国工商业出现了新高涨。与此同时，美国第2次企业“合并浪潮”(即进一步托拉斯化)，遍及银行业、工业部门，特别是水、电、煤气公用事业，甚至扩展到零售商业部门。共和党人C，柯立芝执政时期是美国经济繁荣时期。私人垄断资本大为发展。但由于国内新兴工业畸形发展与生产过剩，使国民经济各部门比例严重失调，生产和消费脱节，农业长期陷于慢性危机，1929年10月美国首先爆发经济危机，随后资本主义各国陆续陷入1929-1933年世界性经济危机。
新托福阅读背景知识：大萧条
20世纪30年代的美国
民主党人F.D.罗斯福1933年就任第32届总统。罗斯福政府实行了由国家对经济进行广泛干预、调节的“新政”，整顿金融，复兴工农业，举办救济事业等，挽救了美国的严重经济危机，并加强了国家垄断资本主义。1933年11月，美国与苏联建交，对拉丁美洲采取“睦邻政策”。1937年新的经济危机再度出现。次年，罗斯福采用扩大赤字开支的办法，使这次危机有所缓解;第二次世界大战爆发后，美国重振军备，才使经济得到恢复，走向繁荣。
新政(New Deal)
睦邻政策 (Good Neighbor Policy)
第二次世界大战期间的美国
1939年9月德国进攻波兰，第二次世界大战全面爆发。罗斯福于1941年3月签署《租借法》，向与德意日作战的国家提供物资。8月14日，罗斯福与英国首相丘吉尔发表《大西洋宪章》，9月24日苏联政府声明同意其基本原则，接着召开莫斯科三国会议，奠定了美英苏战时合作的基础。12月7日，日本偷袭珍珠港，重创美国太平洋舰队。次日，美英对日宣战。英美在开始时接连败退。1942年5月，美军在中途岛海战中击退日军。同年底至次年初，美国在瓜达尔卡纳尔岛战役中击败日军，美军由守势转为攻势，太平洋战争出现转折。 l942年1月1日，美、英、苏、中等26个国家签署《联合国家宣言》。8月英美联军在北非登陆。1943年2月斯大林格勒战役的胜利，使欧洲反法西斯战争的局势发生根本性变化。同年7月，美英军队在西西里岛登陆。9月在意大利南部登陆。10月意大利投降。1943年 11月，罗斯福、丘吉尔、斯大林举行德黑兰会议。1944年6月，英美等国的联军在法国诺曼底登陆，开辟了欧洲第二战场。4月12日，罗斯福逝世，H.S.杜鲁门继任总统。5月，德国宣布无条件投降。7月，美英苏三国首脑举行波茨坦会议，美英就处理德国、波兰等问题与苏联达成协议。美英中发表了波茨坦公告，要求日本无条件投降。美苏就苏军对日作战取得了一致意见。8月6日，美军在广岛投下策1颗原子弹;8月8日苏联宣布对日作战，9日美军又在长崎投下第2颗原子弹，日本投降，第二次世界大战结束。杜鲁门任命D.麦克阿瑟为盟国驻日最高统帅，美军进驻日本，实现了由美国独家控制日本的局面。
大西洋宪章 (Atlantic Charter)
开罗会议 (Cairo Conference)
德黑兰会议 (Teheran Conference)
雅尔塔会议 (Yalta Conference)
波茨坦会议 (Potsdam Conference)
第二次世界大战后的美国
第二次世界大战中，由于扩军参战，并大量供应盟国军火物资，美国成为盟国的兵工厂，出现了战时经济繁荣，国家垄断资本有更大发展。美国利用参战的机会，控制了世界许多重要战略据点，建立了军事基地;杜鲁门政府对外推行冷战政策，提出杜鲁门主义，制订马歇尔计划，筹划成立了北大西洋公约组织。
在内政方面，杜鲁门提出“公平施政”纲领，但收效甚微。1950年6月，朝鲜战争爆发。1952年共和党人D.D.艾森豪威尔以结束朝鲜战争的许诺当选为美国总统。1953年7月签定了朝鲜停战协定。第二页继续...
艾森豪威尔政府在1953-1954年经济危机的侵袭下，为缓和国内外紧张形势，在内政外交方面作了调整，扩大了社会保险法的实施范围，加强科研工作的国家化，进一步发展宇航事业。1955年7月美、英、法、苏四国首脑会议召开，国际形势有所缓和。1957年苏联成功地发射第1颗人造地球卫星，向美国尖端科学领先地位进行挑战。1958年，美国发射人造地球卫星，从而使美苏军备竞赛进入宇宙空间竞争。1969年7月20日，美国宇宙飞船“阿波罗—11”号登月舱在月球着陆。
在第二次世界大战及朝鲜战争期间，由于有黑人参加作战，军队中取消了种族隔离制度，这一事实推动了国内黑人争取民权的斗争。1954年最高法院作出“布朗控诉教育局判决案”，宣布长期统治教育领域的“隔离但平等”原则为违宪。1955年12月，亚拉巴马州蒙哥马利市的黑人在M.L.金的领导下，进行长达381天的抵制乘车方面种族隔离的运动，黑人又在餐馆展开静坐运动，以抗议这方面的种族隔离，民权运动蓬勃兴起。60年代民主党J.F.肯尼迪和L.B.约翰逊相继执政，实行长期财政赤字政策，扩大军费开支，增加福利费用，经济持续上升。同时，由于他们卷入越南战争，支付巨额军费，消耗了美国大量财富，使美国经济实力大为削弱，而联邦德国和日本经济迅速发展，逐渐成为美国的竞争对手。
60年代，由于越南战争不得人心，国内社会动荡不宁。1961年黑人和白人公民共同展开“自由乘客”运动，1963年4月，小马丁·路德·金在伯明翰发动了大规模游行、请愿、静坐和示威运动，8月，25万黑人和白人一起为抗议种族歧视，举行了向华盛顿的进军示威，小马丁 路德·金发表了“我有一个梦”的演说。在黑人民权运动的推动下，国会于1964年6月通过民权法。
1969年R.M.尼克松上台后，美国陷入..泥淖不能自拔，经常性的财政赤字和庞大的军费开支，加剧了通货膨胀，处于内外交困境地。1969年起，尼克松以“伙伴关系、实力加谈判”作为美国对外政策的新战略。1972年尼克松总统访华，发表了中美上海公报。1974年8月9日，尼克松因水门事件被迫辞职，副总统G.R.福特即就任第38届总统。1975年5月，正式宣布越南战争结束。
1979年1月1日中美建交公报生效，实现了两国关系正常化。在美苏关系方面，尼克松提出新“和平”战略后，两国加强了对话。1972年5月，尼克松访苏，签署了限制战略武器条约。80年代，美苏军备竞赛从数量方面转向质量方面。1985年以来，美苏经过不断谈判，终于在1988年6月1日，两国领导人在莫斯科交换了中程导弹条约的批准书。美苏关系进一步趋向缓和。
1986年11月，美国爆发了“伊朗门”事件，披露里根政府(成员)绕过国务院并隐瞒国会，于1985年至1986年秘密向伊朗出售武器，以换取美国人质，并将其中所得款项，转移给尼加拉瓜反政府武装。1987年，美国以保护海湾通航的名义，派遣军事力量去海湾，同伊朗多次发生军事冲突。1989年1月布什就任美国第41届总统。
1990年爆发海湾战争。美国出兵伊拉克。迫使其退出科威特。1992年，民主党人克林顿当选总统。其间美国及多国部队多次空袭伊拉克以制止其研制核武器。90年代末，在美国领导下，北约东扩。
初，美国领导北约向南联盟发动空中打击。
在经济方面，1973年“能源危机”后，1974-1975年美国爆发了战后最严重的经济危机;美国经济陷于以“滞胀”为特征的综合并发症中;1980年美国经济严重衰退。1981年里根任总统后，推行高赤字财政政策，用大规模减税和增加国防开支来刺激经济、鼓励投资，同时严格控制货币发行量。1982年美国经济开始复苏，转入低速增长。1987年10月虽发生股市暴跌风潮，美国经济情况仍较平稳，但财政赤字和外贸赤字仍是美国经济的隐忧。进入90年代，美国计算机产业发展迅速，并带动全球的高科技信息产业，开拓了新一代的产业革命!
杜鲁门主义 (Truman Doctrine)
马歇尔计划 (Marshall Plan)
共同安全法 (Mutual Security Acts)
古巴导弹危机 (Cuban Missile Crisis)
尼克松主义 (Nixon Doctrine)
篇4：托福阅读背景知识材料补充
托福阅读背景知识材料补充 站着办公的风险你知道吗?
托福阅读背景知识文章：站着办公的风险
A new study says that standing up at your desk doesn’t actually decrease your risk of death-by-office, unless you’re physically active otherwise.
新研究表明：除非经常锻炼，否则站着工作也不会降低猝死风险。
After several studies asserted that sitting at work all day is slowly killing us, researchers at the University of Exeter and University College London took another look at the claims. The Washington Post reports:
此前，已有多项研究表明，久坐会慢慢地致人死亡。但埃克塞特大学和伦敦大学学院的几位研究员却从另一角度进行了研究。华盛顿邮报报道：
Researchers tracked 16 years’ worth of health data from 5,132 people in the Whitehall II study cohort. Participants reported their total time sitting and how long they sat during four different situations: at work, watching television, leisure time and non-television leisure time. Researchers also tracked time spent walking daily and on physical activity.
此次研究的调查对象来自白厅二级定群研究，共5132人。研究人员对他们长达16年的健康数据进行了跟踪。调查对象需汇报他们坐下的总时长，以及在四种不同场合——工作、看电视、业余活动，以及不看电视的业余活动——分别坐下的时长。研究人员还跟踪调查了他们每日步行和运动的时长。
After controlling for a number of factors, including diet and general health, researchers found the overall mortality risk for these participants wasn’t influenced by how long they sat or by the kind of sitting. And the researchers cautioned that too much emphasis on not sitting shouldn’t take the place of promoting physical activity.
研究人员在控制了包括饮食、整体健康在内的许多变量后，发现：调查对象的总死亡率不受久坐时间和坐姿的影响。研究人员告诫称，人们不应过份强调久坐的风险，而忽视强调运动的重要。
What’s particularly interesting about the study, published in the International Journal of Epidemiology, is that researchers didn’t just focus on sitting during the workday, but factored in all kinds of sitting-specific data as well as rates of physical activity. Their conclusion was that “sitting time was not associated with all-cause mortality risk.” Basically, more elements are in play than just whether you’re sitting down at work, and your levels of physical activity are the greatest health indicator.
这项研究发表在《国际流行病学杂志》上。其中特别有趣的是，研究员没有只研究人们在工作时的久坐情况，还考虑到了各种相关数据和运动频率。其结论是“久坐与全因死亡率无关”。总而言之，影响健康的元素很多，不仅仅在于是否在工作时久坐。最能体现健康状况的是锻炼情况。
So what does this all mean? It appears that the act of working while standing up—which has become a trendy thing to do, especially in tech offices—doesn’t help your health, if you’re not actually exercising otherwise. If you never make it to the gym, you might as well just sit down. This is good news for the makers of treadmill desks, however.
所以这到底意味着什么?现在流行站着办公，科技公司尤为突出。但是如果不锻炼，站着工作也似乎没什么用;如果永远都不去健身，还不如就坐着呢。这对跑步机办公桌的生产商来说，可是个好消息。
The last office where I worked jumped on the standing desk trend hard, installing desks that could be raised for all workers. They also had a treadmill desk, and a bike desk. While the option to stand is certainly nice as a change in the middle of a monotonous workday, this research suggests it’s not the cure-all that adherents would like to claim.
我之前工作的地方勉强跟上了站立式办公桌的潮流，装上了可随意调节高度的桌子。此外，还有一张跑步机办公桌和一张自行车办公桌。当然，在乏味的工作之余能站着工作也是个不错的选择，但研究表明，站着工作并不是所谓的万灵丹。
“Our study overturns current thinking on the health risks of sitting and indicates that the problem lies in the absence of movement rather than the time spent sitting itself,” study author Melvyn Hillsdon of the University of Exeter said in a statement. “Any stationary posture where energy expenditure is low may be detrimental to health, be it sitting or standing.”
“我们的研究推翻了当下人们对久坐危害的认知，并指出危害健康的原因在于缺乏锻炼，而不是久坐，”来自埃克塞特大学的研究作者梅尔文·希尔斯顿在一份声明中说道。“身体静止不动，能量消耗就低，从而危害健康，不管是坐着还是站着都一样。”
The takeaway here is companies that truly want to assist worker health should invest money in options like free exercise classes and gym reimbursements. They should encourage employees to go outside and actually walk around, not simply stand up at their computers. And maybe it means that everyone who insists that standing up is the only way to work can climb down off their high desk.
这表明，真正关心员工健康的公司应该把钱花在购买免费运动课程和报销健身费用上。公司应鼓励员工走出办公室，四处走走，而不是只在电脑前站着工作。或许这意味着那些坚信“站着是唯一解决办法”的人终于能从高高的桌子上爬下来了。
托福阅读素材：如何帮助一个应届生找到工作
You probably know someone who's graduating from college this year. And what would Amazon or Pinterest suggest you give this brave soul who's walking over coals to the hellish world of job searching? A pen. (A nice pen, but a pen.) Or a mug with an inspirational quote printed on it. Or a business card holder.
You know what would be more helpful than those gifts? A job. Preferably a job with a desk, where this graduate can use her pen, drink from her mug and store her business cards.
Luckily, you – yes, you – can help give that greatest gift of all. Here's how to help a newbie job seeker land a job:
1. Start by looking within your company. Don't see any entry-level jobs listed for your company? That may be because those positions often go unlisted and are filled by internal referrals, says Brian Krueger, founder and CEO of CollegeGrad.com, an entry-level job search site, and author of “The College Grad Job Hunter.” That's where you come in, passing the job seeker's résumé to your human resources department. “If they're a good person for your company, go ahead and refer them internally,” he says. “And you may make a nice little employee referral bonus for making that connection.”
Even if there isn't an open and relevant position available for your contact right now, this referral may help both the recent grad and HR department in the future. Keep in mind that entry-level positions often have high turnover, Krueger says. And consider how larger companies sometimes hire numerous entry-level employees at once, and how usually a few of them will back out of the program just before it begins, he adds. Where do you think the HR team will turn in those situations, when they've got to do some speedy hiring? “If you've got an employee referral sitting there, waiting, that person may be given first consideration and very little competition for that entry-level position if and when it comes up,” Krueger says.
2. Reach out to your network. Share the job seeker's résumé with folks outside your company, too. If there's not much crossover between what you do and what the new grad wants to do, remember: “You may have other connections outside of your job type and industry,” Krueger says. Is there anyone in your book club or yoga class who could help? What about neighbors or family members? Shoot them the résumé, and encourage them to pass it along to whomever may be interested.
In fact, that's where things get interesting. “It's not necessarily who you know, it's who they know,” Krueger says. Maybe there's not much cooking among your connections or even your connections' connections. But the more folks forward the referral, the more eyes (and potential employers) will see it. “Networking is a numbers game,” Krueger says, and it's in those third-level contacts and beyond “where the numbers explode.”
Even as the number of professionals who see the résumé grows exponentially, the fact that the process began as a firsthand referral keeps it personal – unlike if the new grad blindly applied to a job online. Krueger says this method is particularly helpful for finding roles in small companies that have few, unadvertised openings. When companies want to fill those positions, “they're looking at that internal pipeline of people they already know,” he says.
3. Invite the grad to shadow you. “Shadowing is a very classic way of mentoring and helping people,” says Dan Schawbel, career and millennial expert and author of “Promote Yourself: The New Rules for Career Success.” After getting permission from your company, “get this student or recent graduate to come in, and show them firsthand what it’s like to work in an office environment in your profession or industry.”
Schawbel points out that shadowing may help the grad determine what he or she wants – or doesn't want – to do. (Those 9 a.m. conference calls aren't very fun, are they?)
To assure the day goes smoothly for both the shadower and the shadowee, check out these four tipsoutlined by Monster.
4. Help with mock interviews. “We train [students] to read things, know things and take the test,” Krueger says. “You can't read interview questions, know the answer and go to the interview. You actually have to practice.” Here's where you, a list of common interview questions and your phone's video feature come in. And you don't have to be a career expert to be helpful.
“All you're doing is asking them the questions and giving them the opportunity to respond,” he says. “The best part of the mock interview is not necessarily your feedback, but the opportunity to see themselves answering interview questions [and] getting that practice to actually do it.”
5. Be a coach. Again, no expertise necessary. “Sometimes the hardest part of job searching is getting started and making that your full-time job until you get a full-time job,” he says. And you can help keep the grad motivated.
Krueger suggests simply listening to the job seeker's plans and goals for the week – say, reaching out to 30 companies and securing three interviews –and then checking in on how they played out. If applicable, talk about how you can help tweak the strategy. For example, if the job seeker contacted those 30 companies and got no bites, brainstorm more effective ways to communicate with potential employers.
“That's different than Mom and Dad saying, 'Do you have a job yet?,'” Krueger says, because you're holding the grad accountable for her own goals. You're just giving a nudge – which is more useful than a pen.
托福阅读素材之“慢艺术”
Slow art is art created or presented in a way that encourages unhurried viewing and deep contemplation; a work of art that unfolds over a long time.
“慢艺术”是为了鼓励人们从容观看和深思而创造或展示的艺术，是让你花长时间去欣赏的一件艺术品。
Famous art critic Robert Hughes wrote that “We have had a gutful of fast art and fast food. What we need more of is slow art: art that holds time as a vase holds water; art that grows out of modes of perception and whose skill and doggedness make you think and feel; art that isn’t merely sensational, that doesn’t get its message across in 10 seconds, that isn’t falsely iconic, that hooks onto something deep-running in our natures.”
著名艺术评论家罗伯特?休斯曾写道：“我们已经受够了快艺术和快餐。我们更需要的是慢艺术：那些能承载时间的艺术，就像花瓶能承载水一样;那些领会了各种感知方式，灵活又固执地让你去思考和感受的艺术;那些不只带来一时震撼，也不会在10秒内迅速传递信息的艺术，这种艺术不是虚假的偶像文化，而是直抵人性深处的真实。”
A number of museums now offer “slow art” tours or days that encourage visitors to take their time. Rather than check master works off a list as if on a scavenger hunt, you can make a sprawling museum digestible and personal by seeking out only those works that dovetail with your interests.
不少博物馆现在都提供“慢艺术”游览项目或鼓励游客从容观赏的“慢艺术日”。你不必像食腐动物狩猎一般把大师杰作飞速地一览而尽，而是可以找出那些对你口味的作品，然后慢慢地去消化吸收，让你的博物馆之旅变得个性化
篇5：新托福阅读背景知识精选
玛雅象形文字之谜
任何一个古代文明都有自己的文字体系，文字是文明形成的标志。然而，玛雅的象形文字对于现代人说来真是一部天书，它的谜底直到今天仍未解开。
20世纪50年代前，有学者虽然找到了读懂玛雅文字的突破口，但他们始终认为，玛雅象形文字只是宗教符咒、历法记号，既无词组联合也无标音功能，更非反映社会政治与文化生活的各个方面，因此难以真正的理解。20世纪50年代后，人们才逐渐抛弃这些看法，力求从社会、政治角度和玛雅文字可能有的较发达的功能与结构的角度去了解、研究它。
事实上，玛雅象形文字的发展水平与中国的象形文字很相近，只是符号的组合远较汉字复杂，块体不像汉字要求方正而是以近似圆形或椭圆为主。字符的线条也不像汉字的笔画那样规整竖直，更多地依随图形起伏变化、圆通流畅。由于这些特点，玛雅象形文字尽管初看之下觉得奇怪复杂，但实际上却是很美丽的艺术品，凝聚了无数代玛雅艺术家和匠师们的心血。
玛雅象形文字来自奥尔美加。奥尔美加文化确立的象形笔法与方圆结合的块体，以及圆点和直线组成的数字写法，是玛雅象形文字赖以发展起来的基础。不过，玛雅人很快就超过了自己的老师，在前古典期的玛雅纪念碑和其他文物上，象形文字的铭刻与书写就已逐渐占据主要地位，字体更趋规范、完整、美丽，字符的数量也不断增加。到古典初期，文字符号数以百计，纪念碑铭文的刻制更为常见，庙宇和坟墓的墙壁上也有刻下的或书写的铭文。
玛雅象形文字中刻画动物形象的图样往往很能传神，既生动而又鲜明，反映了玛雅艺术家和文字学家的功底。而画得这样生动、细致的图样，只能在纪念碑和神庙建筑的铭文上刻写，因为这些地方的铭文字体一般都有五寸见方，大的可达一尺甚至两尺，这样大的篇幅用来画这些精美的图形自然是得心应手。
把形象化的图形和图案化的简体符号结合在一起，就构成了那些正规的、方中有圆、方圆结合的玛雅象形文字，它们就是我们在玛雅纪念碑上经常看到的或短或长的铭文中的字体。
当时的玛雅社会已出现了纸张和成书抄本，再加上玉器、陶器和日常用品中皆普遍有文字书写的情况，可见象形文字尽管比较艰深，却已成为玛雅社会中不可或缺的信息工具，它的复杂美丽与它的广泛使用都成为玛雅文化生活中的一大特色。这正是玛雅人对世界文明最伟大的贡献之一。
